blacktailslayer Posted December 9, 2009 Report Share Posted December 9, 2009 (edited) GETTING STARTED WITH WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT When you decide to create or enhance wildlife habitat on your property there are several considerations. First, you should determine your goals and objectives for enhancing wildlife habitat. Your perception of wildlife habitat and ultimately the decision of what will be created rests with you. When determining your goals and objectives you need to decide if you are going to manage for a selected wildlife species, create or maintain a specific habitat, or manage to enhance or protect biodiversity. When developing a management objective that is focused on specific species or habitats of interest, you should also consider the social and geographic context of the management area. When developing a management strategy for creating wildlife-friendly habitat, social concerns are important to identify and address. Identifying such concerns allows you to determine characteristics and issues that go beyond the boundaries of your property, and may allow for use of more socially acceptable management practices that fit into the broader agricultural landscape. For example, a wildlife corridor may extend across multiple properties connecting critical areas some distance apart. Environmental factors such as topography, soils and climate play an important role in determining how much of your property is suitable for the production of vineyard crops; other areas that are not suitable can provide habitat. Determining your objectives and the social concerns that surround your property are the first steps in creating a viable management plan. The second step is to map and classify areas within your property suitable for vineyard production and areas that currently support wildlife or may be suitable for habitat development. You should identify and map areas that are conducive to high levels of grape production. Areas that do not support high levels of production because of poor soil conditions or slope and aspect are candidate sites for restoring or developing natural vegetation and valuable wildlife habitat. When mapping vegetation, some specific habitats or components of interest are riparian zones, wetlands, oak savannahs, specific legacy trees (trees of great size, age or historical value), vegetation corridors for wildlife movement, and fertile soils. The scale of vegetation restoration and development is influenced by your management objectives for the selected wildlife species, specific habitats, or biodiversity. Wildlife species have individual habitat requirements, home ranges, and territories they need in order to persist. In determining management restoration plans, you should adjust the scope of your restoration plan to provide adequate habitat for desired species of interest. For example, a red-tailed hawk a tree swallow may find everything it needs on a small property if a nest box and open areas are present for foraging, while a red-tailed hawk may depend on multiple properties for meeting its habitat and forage requirements. Managing Habitats and Habitat Components for Biodiversity Objectives Managing for multiple, diverse species (biodiversity) is probably the most common management objective for landowners. You can increase the biodiversity on your property by retaining or creating as many native habitats as possible. Each habitat or habitat component will provide the needs of several different species and providing multiple habitats will increase the numbers of species on your property. There are several habitats or habitat components that can be provided on many vineyards including snags, legacy trees, oak woodlands, riparian areas, buffer areas. Oak Woodlands Oak woodlands and savannahs are used by over 200 species of animals that depend on the habitat for food and nesting. Oak trees provide a food source, nesting, roosting, dens, hiding cover, shade, organic litter, perches, and reduced water temperatures for all types of fish and wildlife. Less than 1% of oak-dominated habitat in Oregon is on public land. Conservation of Oregon white oak will depend on private landowners. In the Willamette Valley, less than 7% of the oak woodlands and savannas habitat remains due to conversions to agriculture, forestry and urban uses. Oak Woodland Management- Oaks are not tolerant of shading from other trees. Conifer encroachment is one of the main problems for maintain oak woodlands, because conifers over grow and shade the oaks. Physical removal or killing of encroaching conifers will help restore oak woodlands to healthy condition. An alternative is to create snags by cutting the tops off or by girdling conifers to kill them, but leaving them as snags for wildlife use. Fires in the past would thin oak woodlands, creating different aged stands and open savannas. Many of the oak woodlands today are dense and even-aged because fire suppression has caused oaks to become dense tall slender trees because of competition for sunlight. Thinning will help decrease competition for sunlight and allow the oaks to reach their potential open-crowned capacity. Thinning will increase oak structural diversity and wildlife habitat. An alternative to removing some dense oaks is to kill them and leave them as snags or logs for wildlife habitat. A list of diseases and pests that affect oaks can be found at http://www.phytosphere.com. Oak habitat conservation is a key issue for NRCS, Farm Service Agency (FSA), USFW, ODFW, and soil and water conservation districts. Contact your local offices, which may aid and support you in developing grant proposals and management plans for oak woodlands and savannas (Table 5). A guide for helping landowner’s restore and manage Oregon White Oak Habitats is also recommended (Vesley 2004). Riparian Areas A riparian area consists of native vegetation and affected by surface or subsurface water. Some native woody vegetation in Oregon riparian zones include: Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia), black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), big-leaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana), alder (Alnus), cherry (Prunus), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa), rose (Rosaceae), spirea (Spirea), ninebark (Physocarpus), and cascara buckthorn (Rhamnus purshiana). Riparian areas have several ecological functions and include numerous benefits such as stopping or reducing the amount of sediment, nutrients, pesticides, and other pollutants from runoff. These areas provide water, food and shelter for fish and wildlife, serve as corridors for movement of fish and wildlife, contribute litter fall and woody debris used by aquatic organisms, provide shade and cooler water temperatures, and reduces or prevents bank erosion. Close to 360 species of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals frequent or dependent upon riparian habitats in Oregon and Washington. Riparian areas and large patches of forests that include trails can increase property value and tourism of vineyards. Riparian Area Management- There is several things a land owner may do in a riparian area to help enhance, restore, and add diversity to areas for wildlife. Native plant and tree species should be selected based on historic and current conditions in the area. Planting seedling trees and shrubs to provide shade over a stream is one of the most beneficial practices. Bare-root and tubed or plug seedling should be planted in the dormant season. Containerized seedlings work well on harsh sites or when planted at a different time than the dormant season. Tubed or plug seedlings survive well in long dry seasons and on harsh sites that are relatively low cost . Seedlings or saplings may experience high rates of mortality or stunted growth if planted improperly. Transplants should be from ecologically similar sites and planted during the dormant season. Some riparian species such as Black cottonwood, Oregon ash, red and white alder, and willow; can be started from cuttings of stems or short lengths of young shoots. Hardwood, semi-hardwood, and softwood are the three types of cuttings. Details on propagation by cuttings can be found in “Propagation of Pacific Northwest Native Plants” (Rose et al 1998), “Silvics of North America” (Burns and Honkala 1990), and “Willamette Valley Native Plants Along Your Stream” (SSWC 1998). Adding or retaining log or log jams in streams will provide habitat for a variety of animals and plants. Wildlife may use them as pathways, while both fish and wildlife can use them as shelter or hiding cover, and they provide substrates for wetland plants. Varying tree species, length, diameter, and decomposition rates will help maximize value of woody debris in your riparian area. Grasses can be seeded by drilling, no-till drilling, or broadcasting. Drilling is the most efficient planting method with the highest establishment rate of the three methods. No-till drilling causes very little soil disturbance and limits erosion. Broadcast seeding is the least expensive and typically has the lowest establishment rate. Smaller areas can be seeded by hand, while large areas will require equipment. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), National Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), or local watershed council may assist with equipment. Wetlands Wetlands are areas that have soils permanently or seasonally saturated with moisture forming pools of water such as swamps, marshes or bogs (Figure 2). There are several types of wetland and associated vegetation (Figure 3). Wetlands provide multiple functions and values. Wetlands reduce flooding by storing water during floods and slowly releasing the water over a period of time; they trap sediments, reduce erosion, remove excess nutrients and chemical contaminants, and recharge ground water supplies. Wetlands and riparian areas provide crucial habitat for close to 360 fish and wildlife species during certain seasons and/or parts of their life cycle. In addition, wildlife use wetlands as important travel corridors. Wetland Management- There are four things that you can do to protect wetlands. First, protect or plant native wetland vegetation. Second, remove invasive non-native plants and animals in your wetlands. Third, establish buffer zones of grasses and herbaceous vegetation around wetlands to protect wetlands from chemical and fertilizer run-off using the buffer width design tool (Bentrup 2008). Finally, decreasing drainage and leaving the topography and hydrology of a wetland habitat in its natural state will allow wetlands to keep their full habitat potential. Riparian area and wetland restoration projects may require permits depending on a few factors and should be investigated before beginning a project. The Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board’s, “A Guide to Oregon Permits Issued by State and Federal Agencies with a Focus on Permits for Watershed Restoration Activities” (OWEB 2009), can help assist you with understanding permit requirements. For assistance to determine if or which permits are required, go to Oregon Division of State Lands (DSL) website: http://www.oregon.gov/DSL/WETLAND/index.shtml. The removal and fill of any materials in the bed or banks of waterways, or along any stream designated as salmon habitat will require a permit. Contact DSL for assistance on permits. Any construction related to wetland restoration projects may also require a permit from the Oregon Water Resources Department. Legacy Trees Legacy trees are old, living trees that have survived natural disturbances for many years. Before European Americans settled in the west, Oregon white oak was once the dominant vegetation type in the Willamette Valley. Now legacy trees of this species in the Willamette Valley are isolated from wooded areas and are most often found on private land. These isolated trees are keystone habitat attributes, or structures that greatly affect the environment through their presence. A large, open-grown oak with its spreading, overhanging limbs and canopy offer many more niches for wildlife that do straight-statured oaks that have grown in groves of trees. Many wildlife species rely on oaks for their survival; species of concern in the Willamette Valley are the white-breasted nuthatch and chipping sparrow. Birds use these isolated trees for roosting, foraging, nesting, and resting areas during migration (DeMars 2008). Legacy Tree Management - If you are interested in preserving legacy trees on your property the first step is to determine where they are located and minimize damage from natural disturbances. Planning for young trees to become legacy trees is the second step. To do this, you will need to protect many ages of trees to ensure some individuals make it to old age (Mazurick et al. 2004). The goal of your work should be to not only restore oaks and promote legacy oaks, but to also restore the understory vegetation. Restoring this understory growth will lead to more species on your property (DeMars 2008). Snags and Downed Wood Snags are standing dead trees and are a common component of natural forest ecosystems. Snags are vital habitat components to many forest and riparian habitats and will help to increase biodiversity on your property. Snags are used by numerous species of wildlife in western Oregon for perching, feeding, roosting, hibernation and nesting. Many common wildlife species such as woodpeckers, western bluebirds, chickadees, nuthatches, squirrels, raccoon, bats and black bears use snags. Snags that fall provide a different form of habitat, logs, and those that fall in the water play additional roles in the ecosystem by reducing stream velocity and energy and capturing debris and organic matter. Snags are commonly removed for fire wood, safety reasons or because landowners find them to be unsightly. Removal of snags can have adverse effect on terrestrial wildlife species and aquatic habitats. Snag and Downed Wood Management- The creation and retention of snags will help to increase or sustain cavity dependent and other wildlife species. The simplest approach is to identify and protect the snags that currently exist on your property. Many snags will stand 25, 50 or even 100 years. There may be legitimate safety concerns with some snags, but more people are injured each year cuttings snags down than are injured when they fall naturally. If your property does not have snags and you want some, then a more deliberate approach to creating or planning for snags is required. You can plan to recruit snags through natural tree mortality over time, which requires a long-term (multi-generational) perspective, or you can create snags by killing live trees. Trees are most commonly killed by girdling (removing a 1-2 inch strip of bark all the way around the tree). Creating snags for species that prefer cavities in Douglas-fir can be accomplished by topping the trees with chain saws. Two general guidelines are more snags the better and the larger the better. Creating groups and individual snags can be most beneficial to wildlife because both situations occur in natural forest stands. Parts of the trees that have been removed can be used as snags in aquatic habitats. Most cavity nesting birds in western Oregon use snags that are 21 inches (53 cm) in diameter or larger, but some species of wildlife can use smaller snags (Table 2). Once created, snags will not immediately attract cavity nesters, but will attract perching birds. Snags should be monitored every five years to determine rates of decay and document those that fall down. Monitoring snag use by cavity nesters during breeding seasons can be a fun activity. Buffer Systems A buffer is a strip of trees, shrubs or herbaceous vegetation that provides protection for habitats. Grassy borders and fence and hedge rows are buffers that serve as travel corridors, foraging sites, and shelter for wildlife. Protecting and diversifying buffers provides habitat for beneficial insects. Buffers can act as a barrier and help to prevent wind-dispersed weeds from entering property. Buffers can also enhance visual quality, help control noise levels, increase privacy, and decrease air pollutants. Maintaining vegetative cover as much as possible throughout your property will reduce run-off and erosion, while increasing infiltration. Buffers can minimize pathogen sources, production, and transportation. Management of Buffers- When creating buffers, use native perennial species that are adapted to site conditions and purpose. A diverse mixture of trees, shrubs and herbaceous vegetation will increase wildlife diversity on your property. Buffer width is dependent on the function (fence row, riparian buffer, etc.), but in general, the wider the buffer the better it will serve as wildlife habitat. The buffer width design tool (Bentrup 2008) can help you determine how wide a buffer should be to protect wetland and riparian functions. Creation of larger patch sizes will increase the quality of habitat and increase species diversityand abundance. These patches along with connection corridors are critical in protecting biodiversity of plants and wildlife. They allow increased access to resources for wildlife, while protecting sensitive habitats. Connecting patches with corridors can benefit wildlife diversity by providing easy and safe access to other habitats. Managing for Individuals Species or Groups of Species Managing for individual species or group species is called Featured Species Management and requires knowledge of the needs of each species and then a purposeful approach to providing those needs.Certain animal groups such as birds, insects, bats, and fish provide aesthetics to the land owner and visitors. The following sections introduce ideas to implement for attracting some of these groups of native wildlife species to your property. Once you learn what a species needs then you can make your property suitable habitat whether you are managing for birds or deer. Birds Over 150 species of birds live in the Willamette Valley (Grossman 2002). Birds are beneficial because of controlling pest populations; song birds consume large numbers of insects and raptors eat rats, mice, voles, starlings, pigeons and grasshoppers. Bird watching is one of the fastest growing outdoor recreational activities and could become an addition to your property. Retain existing habitat- Protection of existing habitats is the easiest way you can benefit birds and other wildlife on your property. Retain as many large live trees and snags as possible especially if they are near riparian areas. These trees are used for nesting and perching by raptors and foraging by smaller insectivorous birds. Understory vegetation such as shrubs and young trees are also used by songbirds for nesting and feeding and can be used to replace older trees that die. Trees in groups are better than widely spaced trees because wildlife are exposed to the weather and predation when moving among trees. Grouping trees creates cover, larger foraging areas and provides corridors, which can help facilitate finding mates and new locations to forage. Creating or retaining habitat buffers can provide native trees, shrubs and grass communities for forage and nesting habitat for raptors and song birds. A buffer of grasses and forbs at least 30 feet wide adjacent to your property can provide forage for wildlife and nest sites for ground nesting birds. Manage habitat- Management of habitats for birds incorporates the natural habitat as well as human enhanced components. Replacing nesting and roosting sites after a disturbance is critical to maintain birds. This can be achieved by planting new vegetation, especially trees and shrubs and by building nest boxes. Nest boxes replace natural cavities in snags. Each species has preferences for nest box dimensions and locations; species specific designs and information are available at your local ODFW office, or are readily available on the internet at http://www.dfw.state.or.us/swwd/box_specifications.html. Perches for raptors can also be place within your property, which the birds will use when looking for rodents and other small prey. Replacing native vegetation on disturbed sites is important to prevent invasive plant species from colonizing these areas. FUNDING AND LAND OWNER INCENTIVES The cost of owning and operating timber and grass seed fields on your property can be immense and maintaining or improving unused portions of your lands for wildlife habitat may not seem feasible. However, numerous state and federal programs are available to assist landowners in conservation efforts. In an effort to improve private lands and aid the landowners who take pride in the ecological, social and economic benefits resulting from careful stewardship of their lands, the OCS has compiled a list of agencies and programs that can provide technical aid or financial assistance for voluntary conservation practices (Table 1). Bentrup, G. 2008. Conservation Buffers. Design Guidelines for Buffers, Corridors, and Greenways. U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Forest Service, Washington, D.C. Available at: http://www.bufferguidelines.net Accessed 25 April 2009 Campbell,B. H. 2004. Restoring Rare Native Habitats in the Willamette Valley. A Landowner’s Guide for Restoring Oak Woodlands, Wetlands, Prairies, and Bottomland Hardwood and Riparian Forests. Defenders of Wildlife, Portland, Oregon. Available at: http://www.ser.org/sernw/pdf/DefOWild_willamette_hab_restore_manual.pdf Accessed 25 April 2009 DeMars, C. 2008. Conserving Avian Diversity in Agricultural Ecosystems: The Role of Isolated Oregon White Oak Legacy Trees. M.S. Thesis. Oregon State University, Corvallis. Available at: http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/jspui/bitstream/1957/9301/1/Thesis_DeMars.pdf Accessed 12 April 2009 Grossman, E. 2002. A Place for Nature: Willamette Basin Habitat Conservation Priorities. Defenders of Wildlife. Portland, Oregon. https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/jspui/bitstream/1957/45/1/APlaceforNature.pdf Accessed 12 April 2009 Mazurek, M.J. and Zielinski, W.J. 2004. Individual Legacy Trees Influence Vertebrate Wildlife Diversity in Commercial Forests. Forest Ecology and Management. 193: 321-334. Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board (OWEB). “A Guide to Oregon Permits Issued by State and Federal Agencies with a Focus on Permits for Watershed Restoration Activities” Available at: http://oregon.gov/OWEB/docs/pubs/permitguide.pdf Accessed 4 June 2009 Phytosphere Research. 2008. Providing plant science consulting and research services for applications in horticulture, urban forestry, arboriculture, natural plant communities, and agriculture. Phytosphere Research, Vacaville, California. Available at: http://www.phytosphere.com/ Accessed 19 May 2009 Vesely, D. and Tucker, G. 2004. A Landowner’s Guide for Restoring and Managing Oregon White Oak Habitats. ” USDI Bureau of Land Management, Oregon Department of Forestry, Oregon State University Extension Service, The American Bird Conservancy, The Nature Conservancy, USDA Forest Service, USDI Natural resource Conservation Service, Pacific Wildlife Research, Salem, OR Available at: http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/jspui/handle/1957/48 Accessed 25 April 2009 Figure 4. Understory Restoration. (Vesely 2004) Table 1. State, Federal, and Non-profit organization programs offering financial assistance to landowners for conservation efforts. Organization Program Information Contact Information Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) Access and Habitat Program Grants to improve wildlife habitat and/or provide public hunting access on private lands. (503) 947-6087 http://www.dfw.state.or.us/AH/ ODFW- Bird Stamp Program Grants through bird stamp funds to improve game bird habitat. (503) 947-6323 http://www.dfw.state.or.us/wildlife /grants/index.asp ODFW- Riparian Lands Tax Incentive Program Tax incentives to protect, conserve or restore healthy riparian habitat on private lands adjacent to perennial or intermittent streams. (503) 947-6089 http://www.dfw.state.or. us/lands/tax_ overview.asp ODFW- Wildlife Habitat and Conservation Management Program Tax incentive for maintaining or improving habitat for native fish and wildlifeTax rates are calculated by the local county assessor’s office, and are typically comparable to a farm or forest tax deferral. Requires an approved management plan. Not available in all counties. (503) 947-6089 http://www.dfw.state. or.us/lands/whcmp/ Farm Service Agency (FSA) Conservation Reserve Program Encourages conservation practices that reduce soil erosion, improve water quality and enhance wildlife habitat. Landowner receives an annual rental payment for the term of the multi-year contract. Cost sharing is provided to establish the vegetative cover. (503) 692-6830 http://www.fsa.usda.gov/FSA/webapp? area=home&subject=copr&topic=crp FSA Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program Encourages agricultural landowners who wish to restore riparian areas, protect water quality, and enhance fish and wildlife habitat. Agricultural landowners can enroll eligible riparian lands into a 10 year CREP contract and receive annual conservation payments for the contract period and reimbursement for up to 75% of the eligible costs of restoration practices. (503) 692-6830 http://www.oregon.gov/ODA/ NRD/water_crep.shtml Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Conservation Security Program Promotes high standards of conservation and environmental management; addresses soil and water quality issues. Contracts range from 5-10 years and from $20,000 to $45,000/year depending on type of project. (503) 414-3200 http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Programs/csp/ NRCS- Wetlands Reserve Program Restores, enhances and protects wetlands. Payment for permanent easement (100 %), 30-year easement (75%) or 75% for restoration agreement with landowner or other partners cost-sharing remainder. (503) 414-3201 http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/wrp/ NRCS- Wildlife Habitat Incentive Program Establishes and improves fish and wildlife habitat on state, county and tribal lands. Cost-share of ≤ 75% total cost with landowner or other partner cost-sharing remainder. (503) 414-3200 http://www.nrcs.usda. gov/programs/whip/ Oregon Department of Forestry (ODF) Forest Legacy Program The FLP provides funding to protect private forestlands. It is designed to support state and local efforts to protect threatened forestlands from conversion to non-forest use. http://www.oregon.gov/ODF/index.shtml ODF- Forest Resource Trust Encourage landowners to establish and maintain healthy forests on underproducing forestlands―lands capable of growing forests but currently in brush, cropland, pasture or very poorly stocked (and not subject to a reforestation requirement of the Oregon Forest Practices Act). Grants less than or equal to cost of project. (503) 945-7493 http://egov.oregon.gov/ODF/ PRIVATE_FORESTS /cslist.shtml#Forest_Resource_Trust ODF- Forest Stewardship Program Assists family forestland owners in documenting their objectives, stewardship decisions, and recommended resource practices. To provide family forest landowners with a multidisciplinary, action-oriented natural resource stewardship plan provides up to 75% cost-share for professional natural resource consultant-written plans. (503) 945-7393 http://egov.oregon.gov/ODF/ PRIVATE_FORESTS/ cslist.shtml#Forest_Stewardship_Plan_FSP_ ODF- Underproductive Forestland Conversion Tax Credit An Oregon income tax credit for 50% of reasonable project costs for restoring underproductive forestlands that do not require reforestation under the Oregon Forest Practices Act. (503) 945-7393 http://www.oregon.gov/ODF/ PRIVATE_FORESTS/taxes.shtml U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) North American Wetlands Conservation Act Grant Program Matching grants to organizations and individuals who have developed partnerships to carry out wetlands conservation projects for the benefit of wetlands-associated migratory birds and other wildlife. (503) 697-3889 http://www.fws.gov/birdhabitat /Grants/index.Shtm USFWS- Partners for Fish and Wildlife Technical and financial assistance to private landowners to improve habitat for Federal Trust Species, including migratory birds and threatened and endangered species (503) 231-6179 http://www.fws.gov/ Oregon State Weed Board Grant Program The OSWB funds noxious weed control projects through annual grants. It is a priority of the OSWB to fund projects that restore, enhance or protect fish and wildlife habitat, watershed function, and native salmonid or water quality. (503) 986-4621 http://oregon.gov/ODA/ PLANT/WEEDS/grantindex.shtml Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board OWEB has several grant programs for habitat restoration, land acquisition, instream water lease and transfer, monitoring, and technical assistance. Assistance available through local watershed councils or soil and water conservation districts. (503) 986-0178 http://www.oregon.gov/ OWEB/GRANTS/index.shtml Oregon Wildlife Heritage Foundation Grants for projects that improve fish and wildlife habitat and/or provide education opportunities. (503) 225-6059 http://www.owhf.org/owhf/ section.cfm?wSectionID=1731 Environmental Protection Agency- The Five Star Restoration Program The Five Star Restoration Program provide challenge grants, technical support and opportunities for information exchange to enable community-based restoration projects that involve youth to restore wetlands and streams. Funding levels are modest―$5,000 to $20,000/project. (202) 857-0166 http://www.epa.gov/owow/ wetlands/restore/ 5star/ State organizations providing technical assistance Network of Oregon Watershed Councils- Directory of watershed councils working in all areas of Oregon to improve enhance watershed health and benefit the local communities. (541) 682-8323 http://www.oregonwatersheds.org/ Oregon Water Trust Promotes collaborative efforts with farmers, ranchers and others who own water rights to enhance in-stream flows, usually through purchase of water rights. (503) 226-9055 http://www.owt.org/ Oregon Association of Conservation Districts Directory of local soil and water conservation districts working in all areas of Oregon. Conservation districts provide technical assistance in project design and management for projects that promote conservation and careful use of Oregon natural resources. 503) 566-9157 http://www.oacd.org/ Table 2. Minimum recommended diameters and heights for snags needed by wildlife species common in Oregon white oak habitats. Table 5. How to Manage Oaks (Campbell 2004) Table 6. Some common native bird species in the Willamette Valley and breeding season. Species Eggs present Young in nest Birds Osprey April 21-July 5 May 25-September 5 Uses human made structures, habitat in riparian areas. Bald Eagle Feb 5- June 25 April 1- August 31 Requires large nesting trees in riparian areas. Turkey Vulture April 10-June 21 May 10- Aug 31 Agricultural habitat that is somewhat isolated. Red-tailed Hawk Feb 26- June 30 April 10- Aug 10 Tolerate of human activity in agricultural habitat. Western Screech owl March 17- June1 April 20- Aug 25 Need snags for nesting in riparian and forest habitats Vaux's Swift May 20- June 14 July 2- Sep. 4 Uses hollowed out standing snags in riparian and forest habitats. Pileated Woodpecker N/A May- Early June Eats insects from dead wood and snags in forested habitats. Western Scrub Jay March 25- April 20 May 1- July 11 Oak woodland habitat Wrentit March 22- June 30 April 21- July 27 Dense shrub understory for breeding habitat in forested habitats Olive- sided Flycatcher June 8- July 14 Late June -Mid July Occur along buffer systems of aquatic habitats White-tailed Kite March 15-April 15 Late March to Early June Small mammal specialist ie eats rodents and other pests in forested habitat Northern Harrier April 15 - May 5 May 15-June 5 Habitat in aquatic areas. Northen Saw-whet Owl Early March- Mid April Early April -Early May Conifer trees support highest nesting densities, habitat in coniferous dominant forest. Barn owl Early March- Mid April Early April- Mid May Habitat in agricultural areas. Will use nest boxes. Edited December 9, 2009 by blacktailslayer Quote Link to comment Share on other sites More sharing options...
blacktailslayer Posted December 9, 2009 Author Report Share Posted December 9, 2009 Management Plan Example: Introduction This plan applies to a 1,000-acre parcel of forest and grass seed land on the (blank) property. The plan outlines four treatments aimed at improving overall forest health, reducing lethal fire hazard, wildlife conservation, and maintaining aesthetic values. This forest contains relatively healthy trees, but its sustainability is threatened by overstocking, growth stagnation, increased susceptibility to insect and disease epidemics, and increased hazard of severe wildfire. This treatment plan is designed to optimize the health and aesthetic value of the forest. This plan enhances the long term economic value of the forests on the property. In contrast, a plan to maximize current harvest income would remove the largest and most vigorous trees, diminishing the aesthetic qualities and timber values of the property. (Your company of choosing) will provide the consulting foresters and contractors for this project. Our employees and subcontractors are trained and experienced in the art and science of restoration forestry, and in the importance of aesthetic considerations as well. Site Description The Ranch has a very diverse forest. Stand structure and species composition vary with the changing aspects and topographic sites. The north aspects and riparian area along Woodland Creek support the moist habitats which contain western red cedar, grand fir, and white spruce. Any treatment activities in the riparian area must protect this sensitive, valuable community and comply with Montana's Streamside Management Zone Law. Douglas-fir, western larch, and lodgepole pine share dominance in the over story on the upland easterly aspects of the ranch. On the slopes facing more toward the south, ponderosa pine becomes increasingly common. Stumps and growth rings of older trees indicate that the forest was logged around 1900. The oldest trees sampled were ponderosa pines approximately 175 years old, but most of the overstory trees are 90-100 years old. Where the forest canopy is more open dense clumps of younger grand fir and Douglas-fir occur. The basal area for this forest currently ranges from 130 to 210 square feet per acre. Silvicultural Design The objectives of the proposed treatments are to promote forest health, reduce lethal fire hazard, wildlife conservation, and enhance aesthetic values. To implement these objectives we propose a light thinning where all the largest, healthiest trees will be retained. The more fire-resistant species—western ponderosa pine --will be preferred for leave trees. The majority of the trees that would be cut would be smaller Douglas-fir and susceptible lodgepole pine. The following criteria will direct the treatment. 1. The largest most vigorous trees will be retained. 2. Most small trees in overstocked areas will be removed. 3. Most trees with poor vigor or damage from insect or disease attack will be removed. 4. Snags will be left standing for wildlife habitat. Scattered groups of small trees that do not create dangerous fuel ladders will be retained to provide canopy level diversity and hiding cover for wildlife. The more vigorous trees tend to grow in groups and therefore leave tree spacing will be irregular as a reflection of these natural conditions. This approach is in direct contrast with most forestry and logging where an unnatural, even tree spacing is desired. Harvest Plan The basal area of the stand after treatment will average ( ) square feet per acre, but will range from ( ) square feet in accordance with variations in site productivity. The harvest is estimated to remove about ( ) mbf and this will leave approximately ( ) mbf of the best timber standing after treatment. Treatment will begin in the northeast corner of the property (Stand A--see map). In this area bark beetles have killed and continue to infest most of the lodgepole pine. Healthy white spruce, Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine are mixed throughout this site. Harvest here will remove all but the most vigorous, lodgepole pine while being careful to protect the remaining trees from damage. These operations will be performed while the ground is frozen or extremely dry. These operations should pay for themselves. The adjacent area to the west (Stand B on map) will be treated next using the same harvest selection criteria as outlined above. The volume harvested from these stands is estimated to yield approximately ($) above treatment costs. In the remainder of the forest (approximately 90 acres), income from the volume harvested would not be sufficient to cover the treatment costs. We estimate the income from stands A and B would be adequate to allow treatment of approximately sixty additional acres. Treatment of the rest of the forest would require investing additional money to cover the difference between harvest income and costs. Harvest Design Thinning will be done primarily with cut-to-length technology. This system will use a rubber tired harvester-processor and a rubber tired log forwarder to minimize damage to the remaining stand and the soil. The harvester processes trees at the stump, so there is no need to drag whole trees out of the forest and slash is treated in the woods which benefits nutrient cycling. This system also greatly reduces the need to create large openings in the forest for log decks and slash piles (landings). Scarring of leave trees will be further minimized by careful operation. Soil disturbance is minimized because the forwarder carries logs instead of skidding them. Soil disturbance will be further minimized by operation on frozen or dry ground. Some of the large dead lodgepole pine will be removed as long logs with a skidder in order to maximize their value as house logs. These dry, light-weight logs represent a small portion of the total volume and when skidded carefully there will be no significant impact. For Stand C we will consider using a whole-tree harvest system because: there will be no need to cut a big landing in the forest since we can use the field; the trees and skid distances are short so damage to leave trees can be prevented; since trees are small and crowded a feller- buncher can be more efficient than a cut-to-length harvester; and the terrain in this stand is gentle, therefore damage to the soil will be minimal when the work is done on dry or frozen ground. The steep slopes in Stand D will require using a special kind of cable yarder called an excaliner, or a helicopter. This will require extra effort in leave tree selection and implementation, but when implemented correctly both systems will produce a residual stand that is aesthetically pleasing. The system we choose will depend on economic considerations at the time of implementation. Fuels treatment Following the thinning, slash will be carefully piled with a rubber tired grapple machine. This method produces much less soil disturbance and visual impact than the common practice of pushing slash together with a bulldozer or dragging whole trees to large landings. In woods grapple piling reduces fire hazard while helping to keep nutrients in the forest. The small piles will be burned during suitable weather conditions to exceed the State of Montana slash disposal requirements. Wildlife The ranch provides habitat for deer, elk, black bear, mountain lion, wolves, and a variety of smaller mammals. This habitat will be enhanced by opening the tree canopy in places. This will promote the growth of grasses including rough fescue, Idaho fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass. Opening the canopy will also stimulate the growth of shrubs including chokecherry, serviceberry, Scouler’s willow and snowberry. All of these plants provide important food sources for wildlife, but they are all in decline due to shading from the dense tree canopy. The tree thinning will be done in a conservative fashion, so wildlife cover should not be adversely affected. To maintain more structural diversity and provide more hiding cover, several areas of 5 to 15 acres will be left untreated. The landowner will continue monitoring for weeds to be sure opening the tree canopy does not reveal any new infestations. Roads This project will not require any new roads. The current road drainage will be reconfigured in the area near Woodland Creek to reduce the amount of sediment the road currently adds to the creek. This will improve water quality in Woodland Creek significantly during runoff. Adaptive Management As treatments are being implemented, adaptive management techniques will be utilized to ensure that the key objectives are being met. If a goal is not being met, or a problem with a treatment arises, the treatment will be adapted to correct the problem and meet the desired goal. Quote Link to comment Share on other sites More sharing options...
blacktailslayer Posted December 9, 2009 Author Report Share Posted December 9, 2009 (edited) Turkey Wild Turkey Management USDA http://efotg.nrcs.usda.gov/reference...ic/AL/645b.pdf Turkey Management http://www.turkeymanagement.com/ National Wild Turkey Federation http://www.nwtf.org/conservation/ Management Practices for Retaining and Creating Habitat Habitat management for turkeys is mostly a matter of retaining, creating and managing suitable food, cover and water. Ideal cover is a well protected area of several hundred acres. Ninety percent of the area may be forestland, with a variety of timber types, one half of which should be mature hardwoods predominantly oaks. The forest understory should be open. At least 10 percent of the area should be in well distributed grassy openings. As much as 50 percent of the area may be open if the area isn’t heavily used by people. Create woodland openings of one acre or more in size, at least 200 feet wide and well distributed. Such openings allow maximum sunshine to reach the floor, thereby ensuring high production of low-growing vegetation from which turkeys can obtain insects. Adults use openings for resting and feeding. If there are trails or roads through the woodlands, these should be seeded with grass or clover and grass mixtures. Turkeys usually select areas with dense brush, tall grass and fallen tree tops for nesting. Important brood habitat includes forested areas with moderate herbaceous understories, forest clearings, forest savannas, power line rights-of-way and a water source. Excellent habitat for poults would be fallow fields and woodlands with an open canopy that allows plants to grow at ground level. These areas usually have an abundance of insects and moderate vegetation which allows young poults to move freely. Prescribed burning can help maintain relatively open understory. Habitat Maintenance Maintain an open understory in woodland. Turkeys thrive where openings comprise as little as 5 percent of the total area and as much as 50 percent. To retain turkeys throughout the year on heavily forested land or to attract them during the spring, provide openings of 5-20 acres. Long narrow openings are provided by utility rights-of-way, or by widening logging roads. Prescribed burning, brush control, release cutting, and other practices may be used in maintaining turkey foods in woodland. Prescribed burning increases the stands of annual grasses, wild legumes and other desirable foods of the wild turkey, especially in pine woodland. Maintain in early stages of succession by periodic mowing, disking, burning or other means. Vegetation in openings should be no higher than one foot, especially during most of the growing season. Improved pastures provide excellent feeding areas for hens and older poults. Mow ungrazed or lightly grazed openings during mid-summer to stimulate new growth and to prevent such areas from becoming too thick. Avoid mowing during nesting season. Restrict mowing in areas of turkey habitat between mid March and early June. Field edges should provide a subtle transition from woodland to opening, allowing poults to have access to cover when feeding in fields. This can be done by thinning trees along field edges or allowing edges to revert to brushy cover. If fields or pastures are heavily grazed, build fences several yards out from the woodlands to prevent cows from cleanly grazing field edges. Young pine plantations are low quality turkey habitat when compared to mature pine, pine-hardwood and hardwood forests. Restrict pine management to sites best suited to pine production. Small pine plantings of less than 1/2 acre in size may increase habitat diversity for turkey because they provide thermal cover and roost sites. Leave hardwood dominated drains and stream bottoms uncut when harvesting or establishing pine stands. Retain soft and hard mast producers in uplands. Thin pine stands as liberally as needed. Prescribe burn as soon as the tree height in young stands allows safe burning. Restrict management activities such as prescribed burning during nesting season. Prescribed Burning Fire is among the most valuable and cost-effective tools available for managing habitat yet is probably the least understood. A prescribed burn removes vegetation from only part of the total area. Additionally, the recovery of burned areas is swift and the resulting new vegetation and conditions on the ground are much more user friendly for wildlife. Benefits include: reducing plant litter, the accumulation of which makes walking and food foraging difficult for poults; controls woody plants; releases dormant seeds; and increases the number of small insects attracted to the new vegetation. Burning in late winter or early spring removes litter and grass thatch and encourages butterfly pea, lespedezas, milkpeas, partridge peas and beggarlice. Burn a tract once every 2-3 years. Areas left alone will advance into less desirable stages of succession and will produce unfavorable habitat for wildlife. Land users should either undergo training or become certified in the use of prescribed fire, or retain a professional who has training and experience in prescribed burning. It is essential to have the proper equipment and permits to plan and conduct a controlled fire. Food Habits If one wants to manage for any wildlife species, the first thing to realize is that every animal requires food, cover, water, and space. Managing all these components creates a recipe for success and turkey management is no different. All species of wild turkey are omnivorous, foraging on the ground or climbing shrubs and small trees to feed. Turkeys prefer eating hard mast (such as acorns) from various trees including hazel, chestnut, hickory, oak, and pinyon pine, as well as various seeds and berries (such as juniper and bearberry), plant roots, and insects. Turkeys are very opportunistic and also known to occasionally consume small vertebrates like snakes, frogs, lizards, and salamanders. Young turkeys, or poults, have been observed eating insects, berries, and seeds. Poults require a protein-rich diet which can be obtained my consuming invertebrates such as grasshoppers, crickets, and other grassland invertebrates. Wild turkeys often feed in forest openings, woodlands, open grasslands, and even native and improved pastures. In urban or suburban areas, turkeys will sometimes visit backyard bird feeders to search for seed that has fallen on the ground. Although turkeys are very wary, they can adapt to human encroachment in some cases. Turkeys are known to eat a wide variety of grasses. In fact, around 80% of a turkey’s diet is made up of grass! Turkeys enjoy small, tender native grasses and also commercially grown plants such as oats, wheat, and rye. Turkey populations can reach large numbers in small areas because of their ability to forage for different types of food. This can pose serious crop depredation issues for farmers in areas where wild turkey populations flourish. Wild turkeys are crepuscular, meaning they enjoy feed during early morning and late afternoon. Because turkeys feed on a variety of foods, habitat diversity is a key component for an effective turkey management program. Ensure that the habitat found on your property includes areas where turkey can feed on mast, forbs, grasses, and insects. Turkey food habits vary by age and by season. Two of the most important factors in Rio Grande turkey habitat are usable space and the interspersion of habitat types. Usable space refers to the amount of area a population requires to fulfill biological, behavioral, and physiological requirements. Therefore, population size would logically increase as the amount of usable space increases, and as usable space decreases, so should population size. Wild turkeys typically require large areas of unusable space to support viable, sustaining populations. With this fact, if suitable habitat exists, but only available on a small scale (such as a small ranch) then not even the best turkey management program can create usable space. A turkey’s range is defined as the area it uses while engaged in normal activities of gathering food, breeding, and caring for offspring. Total range is difficult to determine for the life of most animals due to difficulties following individuals throughout their entire lifespan. As a result, biologists often report seasonal and annual ranges. Research conducted in Texas found that annual range sizes vary between 3,500 and 6,500 acres. Seasonal range shifts occur due to changes in resources and habitat requirements. Rio Grande turkeys are highly mobile, and annual movements can vary between 5 to 25 miles! Rio Grande wild turkeys do not migrate, but they do exhibit pronounced seasonal shifts and may have distinct summer and winter ranges. Because of their mobility, Rio Grande turkey ranges often exceed the size of a single property. Small properties of less than 1,000 acres may still provide essential components of Rio Grande wild turkey habitat requirements. For example, areas containing roost sites or quality nesting or brooding areas are vital, so alteration of these areas can significantly impact wild turkey populations. Therefore, small acreage landowners may benefit from working cooperatively with neighbors to collectively provide essential components of Rio Grande wild turkey habitat. Rio Grande turkeys require two basic habitat types, wooded areas and open areas. The amount and interspersion of these two types may determine habitat quality and are essential is attracting and maintaining turkey populations. One study in the northeast found that in areas with greater interspersion of forests and open areas supported larger turkey populations. Habitat suitability increased by providing smaller, irregularly shaped patches rather than a few large patches. This effectively increases the amount of diversity. Although the proportion of wooded and open areas may vary between and within ecoregions, habitat will always consist of the same two components. This is particularly important with the proliferation of small land ownerships. It’s something that all turkey management programs must address, but can land fragmentation and wild turkey populations can co-exist if the turkey’s habitat requirements are met. Nesting Turkey nests have been found in a variety of habitats, but nest are usually situated in close proximity to woody vegetation. Sites are primarily selected for their undergrowth characteristics. Nests are often found at the base of trees or against fallen logs. Though turkeys will not usually select wide-open grasslands for nesting, hens will often select a nest site near a trail or open area. This allows for access to the nest and the trail or open area may be used for a feeding area during incubation. Turkey nests are a shallow depression formed mostly by scratching, squatting, and laying eggs. Most hens lay one egg a day, and have a clutch of 10 to 12 eggs. Laying hens cover the eggs with leaves or other material, while incubating hens leave the eggs exposed. Turkey nesting means behavioral and habitat use changes for turkey hens. Most subspecies of wild turkey are gregarious, but turkey hens change their behavior during the nesting season. When a turkey hen starts looking for a nest site she will avoid all other hens. Once a site is selected, this behavior continues to occur in an area of a half mile around the selected nesting site. However, when she is further out from the nest the hen will associate with other turkeys. Hens that are incubating may occasionally roost in trees for the night, even after incubating continuously for several days. Most incubating hens leave the nest every day to feed, but occasionally they may skip a day. When a hen leaves the nest, she leaves the nest uncovered and goes directly to water, drink, defecate, and then feed. Time off the nest varies from day to day and weather can play a factor in her outings. On hot days hens seem to feed longer and in a more leisurely manner than on cold days. This makes sense because eggs will remain warmer for longer when the outside temperature is warmer. Turkeys have an incubation period of about 26 days. Hatching begins with pipping. Pipping is when the poult uses is egg tooth (hard, sharp spike on the upper beak) to break the shell. The pipping poults rotate in the egg to make a complete break around the large end of the egg. Hatching takes about 24 hours. Once the poult frees itself from the egg it is ready to follow the hen within 12-24 hours. And though large expanses of open grasslands are rarely used for nesting, these areas are important feeding areas for poults. A variety of plant communities is important for the success of local turkey population success, so ensure that your turkey management plan focuses on all of the seasonal needs of wild turkey. Ground-nesting birds have an average success rate of about 15%, but the success of turkey nests can range from 0 to 50% depending upon habitat condition, predators, and environmental factors. Predators http://www.nwtf.org/NAWTMP/literatur...ld_turkeys.pdf Predation can play a role in limiting turkey populations, but it is more likely that the problem is poor habitat quality that makes birds, their nests, and broods more vulnerable to predation. Turkeys have evolved behaviors and reproductive strategies to cope with predation, but in highly fragmented landscapes predators may be more efficient in finding turkeys and their nests. This is particularly true for nest predators such as raccoons, skunks, and opossums. In areas with poor brood habitat quality, such as low stem densities or poor overhead cover, turkeys and poults may be more vulnerable to avian predators such as hawks and owls. In these cases, habitat management is critical for long term turkey management and viable turkey hunting. Larger predators, such as coyotes, may impact turkeys or other game birds on a small scale, but it is unclear whether they can affect turkey populations in large regions. Edited December 9, 2009 by blacktailslayer Quote Link to comment Share on other sites More sharing options...
blacktailslayer Posted December 9, 2009 Author Report Share Posted December 9, 2009 http://extension.oregonstate.edu/cat...tml/ec/ec1132/ Stand Management Thinning Systems for Western Oregon Douglas-fir Stands Reprinted July 2003 Contents Basic stand growth Thinning options Timing High and low thinning Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Intensity and frequency Stocking guides Table 1 How do you put it all together? What is best for you? Summary Thinning is removing selected trees from a stand to allow others to continue growing. Ordinarily, a woodland manager uses a thinning system that encourages the remaining trees to grow in a manner consistent with the manager's objectives for those trees. This publication will help you understand how to thin Douglas-fir. It also will help you choose the proper thinning system to achieve your objectives. You can apply the methods discussed here to all predominantly even-age and well-stocked Douglas-fir stands west of the Cascade crest in Oregon. Thinning is the best way to maintain maximum diameter and board-foot volume growth in Douglas-fir stands. It can produce income at 5- to 10-year intervals instead of at 30- to 50-year intervals without thinning. It also can lengthen the time span in which a stand produces income. Basic stand growth A stand is a collection of living trees. It usually begins as hundreds of small seedlings per acre of land. As these trees grow larger, they eventually occupy all the growing space, crowd out lower growing plants, and compete with each other just as carrots compete in a garden. Unless some of the trees die or are removed, others cannot continue to grow. Certain trees dominate by slowly pulling ahead of their neighbors. They become stand dominants or codominants (see Figure 1) and later are harvested as crop trees. Those that lose in this race for space, water, and light gradually fall behind, becoming intermediate and eventually overtopped or suppressed trees. They slowly die, fall to the forest floor, and rot. Thinning removes trees before growth slows, thereby preventing mortality. It keeps crop trees growing rapidly. It is easy to see the result of this process in the relative size of tree crowns (crown class) and stems within an undisturbed stand. Dominant trees have the largest diameters and crowns, whereas suppressed trees are smaller in diameter and shorter and have thin, short crowns. In extreme cases of stand competition, growth in both diameter and height is restricted and trees stagnate, staying virtually the same size for years. A proper thinning system prevents stagnation. Fortunately, Douglas-fir does not tend to stagnate, especially on more productive sites. Figure 1.--A typical Douglas-fir stand with dominant (D), codominant ©, intermediate (I), and overtopped (O) trees. A wolf tree (W)-one that occupies more space than it warrants--is also part of the stand. The relative amount of live crown, height, and diameter of each tree determines its crown class. Thinning options Timing Precommercial thinning is thinning before trees are large enough to sell. Its objective is to give young trees room to grow as quickly as possible to merchantable size. Precommercial thinning is necessary when young stands are overstocked or some trees are poorly formed. (Young Douglas-fir stands are considered overstocked if they have more than 350 to 400 trees per acre.) Although a precommercial thinning can be expensive, most foresters agree it is economically advantageous. Delaying precommercial thinning delays the accumulation of merchantable board-foot volume, increases mortality, and increases risk of stagnation. The chief disadvantage of precommercial thinning is the expense. However, federal cost-share assistance might be available (see OSU Extension publication EC 1119, Incentive Programs for Woodland Management and Resource Conservation). A rule of thumb is to precommercially thin stands to a 10- or 15-foot average spacing by age 15 or before trees are 20 feet tall. This allows trees enough room to reach commercial size before competition slows diameter growth. Some woodland owners have inherited or bought unthinned stands that are more than 15 years old or greater than 20 feet tall but are not marketable. These owners must decide whether to wait for stands to reach commercial size slowly or to do a late precommercial thinning. If such stands are severely overstocked and tending toward stagnation, owners should complete precommercial thinnings. Some woodland owners have found markets for material that is too small for saw logs. This allows recovery of some precommercial thinning expense. Fenceposts, barn poles, and firewood are a few of the products. Commercial thinning turns a profit immediately. A good commercial thinning system improves the stand's ability to grow, thereby producing further profit. It leaves healthy trees with live crowns extending more than 30 percent of the length of the trees' height. Also, proper thinning does not injure leave trees--those that remain after thinning. Collectively, leave trees compose the growing stock. Thinning shock, sunscald, and windthrow are major reasons to avoid delaying thinnings. Thinning shock When stands are allowed to compete excessively, the crown recedes to the uppermost portion of the tree. When thinned, these small-crowned trees are not capable of using the added light and space. In fact, they may experience thinning shock and stop growing for a few years after thinning. Sunscald Tree trunks exposed suddenly to the sun after thinning might react with a condition called sunscald in which the hot sun on the south side of the tree kills the living and growing portion of the tree immediately under the bark. This results in defective logs and reduced growth and profit from future harvests. Windthrow and breakage may occur after heavy thinning in stands left too long unthinned. The slender trees that a late precommercial thinning leaves are often bent or broken by wind or snow. Thus, promptly thinning Douglas-fir stands will prevent problems in addition to promoting rapid growth. High and low thinning Commercial thinning strategies include high (top or crown) thinning and low thinning. They differ by the crown class of trees removed. Each system has its own characteristics. A high thinning removes dominant and codominant trees, but not to the point where the growing capacity of the stand is seriously reduced (see Figure 2). You must carefully choose the relatively few dominants to remove so you give other dominants, codominants, and even some intermediate trees a better chance to continue growing. High grading is high thinning carried too far. It removes so many trees that future stand growth and tree form are downgraded. High grading eventually results in financial loss because it robs the growing stock to the extent that future growth is reduced excessively. Figure 2.--The stand in Figure 1 will look like this after a high thinning removes various dominant trees, leaving codominants, dominants, intermediate, and overtopped trees to continue growing. As compared with low thinning, high thinning has the advantage of increasing the volume per tree cut. Because large trees are cut, the average stand diameter decreases, and leave trees have smaller live crown ratios. Proper high thinning, however, leaves many stems per acre. Its chief advantages are that it: • Allows early logging of marginally commercial stands • Reduces logging costs by taking only a few large trees per acre • Makes more options available for future thinnings The major disadvantage of high thinning is that people tend to get greedy and take too many dominant and codominant trees. This leads to thinning shock and poor growth response in the remaining trees and turns an intended high thinning into an objectionable high-grade cut. A low thinning removes the less competitive trees from a stand (see Figure 3). It takes all overtopped, intermediate, and some codominant trees. The remaining dominants and codominants, which had the best crown positions, continue growing. Since slow-growing trees are removed, the stand continues to grow at a rapid rate. To remove the same amount of board-foot volume, you need to remove more trees in a low thinning than in a high thinning. Because you remove the less competitive trees, you must take more of them to maintain or increase growth of the remaining dominant and codominant trees. A common problem in low thinning is not taking enough trees. Logging costs are high because many small trees are removed. If the stand is large enough to be only marginally commercial, you may have to wait several years to get a profitable low thinning, but you could carry out a high thinning immediately. The chief advantages of low thinning are: • Little delay in growth response • Little risk of windthrow or thinning shock because the trees that remain are those that were exposed to nearly full sun before thinning If special products are your objective, you can use a combined high and low thinning. For example, managing for poles and piling requires frequently thinning trees from either high- or low-crown classes. A common practice is to do a high thinning as the first commercial thin, following with a low thinning later in the life of the stand. You have a great deal of flexibility in thinning strategy as long as it improves your stand. Intensity and frequency Thinnings vary in intensity or number of trees removed. A thinning that removes only a few trees is referred to as light; a heavy thinning removes more trees. Frequency or how often thinning is done, is another major difference in thinnings. You can thin several times or only once during the life of an individual stand. Increasing frequency may increase injury to remaining trees as well as increase soil compaction on the site. Thinning at 5-year intervals is considered high frequency; a 20-year interval is low frequency. Frequency and intensity apply equally to high and low thinning systems. Consider them a unit. To maintain an acceptable level of growing stock, you must balance the two--if you increase intensity, reduce frequency. In summary, thinning systems vary with respect to: Timing--precommercial or commercial? Strategy--which crown classes to remove? Intensity--how many trees to remove? Figure 3.--The stand in Figure 1 will look like this after a low thinning removes all intermediate, most overtopped, and some codominant trees, leaving dominant trees to grow. Sometimes a low thinning removes wolf trees because they take up so much growing space. These factors influence a stand's response in terms of volume growth rate, type of product produced, extent of defect, species composition, and ultimately, the dollars returned from harvested timber. Stocking guides The stocking guidelines in Table 1 are averages based on measurements taken in hundreds of Douglas-fir stands. Well-stocked stands have average spacing and trees per acre that range between the understocked and overstocked limits. Research has shown that this is the approximate size and distance at which the full potential of a site is captured on fast-growing crop trees without tree mortality. Before you thin, compare the present condition of your stand to your target stand. Determine your target stand by looking at the overstocked column in Table 1. If you want your stand to grow to 16 inches in diameter, leave 160 trees per acre at about 17-foot spacing. Table 1.--Trees per acre and spacing limits for even-age Douglas-fir standsa Understocked stands have Overstocked stands have Average stand diameter (inches) Fewer trees per acre than Wider spacing than about (feet) More trees per acre than Narrower average spacing than about (feet) aTrees per acre and spacing for well-stocked stands fall between the understocked and overstocked limits. marketable as quickly as possible. Because the trees are not crowded, they should For example, a stand with a 14-inch average diameter is considered well stocked if it has 90 to 200 trees per acre. The average acceptable distance between trees is 15 to 22 feet. If the stand is near the limit of 200 trees per acre, you should thin it soon. If it is near the 90-trees-per-acre limit, it will be years before thinning is advisable or necessary. When using the stocking guidelines, it is important to realize that thinning changes the average diameter of trees in a stand. A low thinning removes small trees, increasing the average stand diameter. In contrast, high thinning reduces the average stand diameter because it removes large trees. This change in average diameter can affect the number of trees and spacing you use as a thinning target. For example, consider a 14-inch stand with 200 trees per acre. A high thinning that reduces the average diameter by 2 inches should leave no fewer than 120 trees per acre. On the other hand, a low thinning that increases average diameter by 2 inches could leave as few as 75 trees per acre. You have considerable flexibility in the frequency and intensity of cuts. If cuts are frequent, restrict intensity. Infrequent cuts, however, can be more intense. The time it takes to grow from under- to overstocking depends on the productivity of a site. On a low site, this might take 20 years; on a high site, perhaps only 5. Nevertheless, the relationship holds for all sites where Douglas-fir can produce a fully stocked stand. How do you put it all together? Imagine you have a 10-year-old stand on high-site ground with more than 1,200 stems per acre and an average diameter of 2 inches. If you do nothing, the stand will be overstocked long before the trees have 8-inch diameters. Growth will slow, and trees will die. Unfortunately, markets for small material are extremely limited. Therefore, you decide to do a pre-commercial thinning. From the stocking table, you see that leaving 280 trees per acre will allow trees to reach 12 inches in diameter before the stand is over-stocked. Therefore, you remove three of every four trees, resulting in a 12- or 13-foot spacing. This spacing will produce fast growth on individual trees, and the stand will become grow at about three annual rings per inch of radius. In 10 to 12 years, the average stand diameter should be 12 inches. The stand will have grown to the point of overstocking, and it should be thinned at that time. You decide to remove one-third of the trees, leaving about 200 trees at a spacing of about 15 feet. If trees have an average growth rate of five rings per inch, these trees will need another 8 years to reach an average diameter of 15 inches. At that time, you remove 100 15-inch trees in a profitable commercial thinning. This leaves about 100 trees per acre. You allow these trees to grow until they reach a 20-inch average diameter--the point of being overstocked. At that time, you harvest the rest of the trees and plant a new stand. In another example, imagine you have three stands, each averaging 12 inches in diameter. Stocking is 100, 200, and 400 trees per acre. What do you do? First, it is important to thin the dense stand down to about 120 trees per acre (18-foot spacing); otherwise, trees will die soon. The stand with 200 trees per acre is in good shape--for now--but you should thin it after it grows 3 inches in diameter. The stand with only 100 trees per acre will have room to grow for years before the trees average 20 inches in diameter. Then, you would most likely harvest all the trees and plant a new stand. What is best for you? Several factors determine which thinning system is best for you. Of critical importance are the conditionof your stand and the steepnessof your ground. Your management objectivesand financial situationhave a strong influence on what you should and can do. For example, you'll need to consider whether you need a periodic income from your woodland property and whether you can afford out-of-pocket expenses. Other factors include the timeyou have to devote to planning and executing thinnings, your skill levelfor doing part or all of the work, and your aesthetic tastes(light thinnings are less noticeable than heavy thinnings). Both high and low thinnings require skill, experience, and judgment. However, some foresters believe damage is more likely during high thinning. A novice thinner might do a low thinning to be more cautious. A forest's appearance is important to most landowners. Both high and low thinnings can be done in a way that leaves the forest neat and attractive. However, each system produces a different result. High thinning creates greater diversity of tree size but relatively few large trees. Low thinning produces a more uniform forest because big trees are left to grow bigger. Regardless of whether high or low, intense thinnings tend to create a more open, sunny, brushy forest than do less drastic thinnings. Infrequent thinnings allow the forest more time to return to an undisturbed state than do frequent entries. Either of these characteristics might influence you toward one thinning system instead of another. Fragile areas (stream banks and wetlands) and areas with access problems can influence your selection of a thinning system. You might use intense, infrequent thinnings to reduce the number of times you disturb a fragile site. In a similar case, you might decide infrequent logging entry is the best way to reduce the environmental impact of a temporary stream crossing. Stands on very steep slopes (greater than 60 percent) require expensive cable logging. They are difficult to thin because logging can damage residual trees. The best strategy might be a heavy precommercial thinning followed by final harvest. (A 16-foot spacing would produce 170 trees with 14- to 16-inch diameters for final harvest.) On moderately steep ground (40 to 60 percent slopes), infrequent thinning allows you to take enough volume to make cable yarding profitable. If your ground is gentle (less than 25 percent slope), you can choose from an array of thinning systems. In young, marginally commercial stands, an intense high thinning might be necessary to cut enough big logs to pay for the thinning operation. This could improve the stand if most of the trees cut are defective or of poor quality. A high thinning can turn into a high grade when it removes most of the trees capable of good growth. In older stands, you might use either a high or low thinning system or a combination of both. The type of products you can market may affect your choice of thinning system. A high price for poles of a certain length may dictate taking those trees that qualify. Damage to trees from insects, disease, and weather also can influence thinning. If wind and ice damage large trees, a high thinning would be logical. The type of thinning system you choose will also influence the way you regenerate a future stand of Douglas-fir. A heavy, high thinning often promotes natural seeding in of western redcedar and western hemlock. You can encourage this by managing a forest with continued thinning and no final clear-cut. Low-intensity, low thinnings at frequent intervals lead to a clear-cut, and you will need to replace the stand with young and vigorous trees. When you fully understand these implications, you can choose a thinning system that delivers the kind of benefits you seek from your forest land at a time when you need them. Summary The thinning concepts described here are not difficult, but they may be confusing as you read them for the first time and try to relate them to each other. Here is a review of the key concepts. Crown class Dominants--Larger than average trees with crowns that extend above a stand's crown level. Codominants--Medium-size trees that form the general level of crown cover. Intermediate--Trees that are shorter than dominants and codominants, with crowns below or extending into the crown cover formed by the larger trees. Overtopped--Small trees with crowns below crown-cover level. Types of thinning Precommercial thinning--Removing small trees in a young stand to reduce competition and accelerate commercial growth of remaining trees. Consider this first thinning an investment, because what you spend now will pay off later. Commercial thinning--A profitable operation that removes trees from a developing stand to give the remaining trees more growing space. It improves individual tree growth. High thinning--Removing large dominant and codominant trees, thereby releasing the remaining trees to grow more rapidly. Low thinning--Removing small, noncompetitive trees (overtopped, intermediate, and some codominants) so remaining trees can continue rapid growth. Thinning factors Intensity--The number of trees you remove. It can be light (removing only a few trees) or heavy (removing a lot of trees). Frequency--How often you thin. It can be high (5-year intervals) or low (20-year intervals). The present condition of your stand, your management objectives and constraints, and the amount of time and skill you can devote to managing your stand are important factors in determining the best thinning system for you. Thinning systems vary according to: Frequency of cutting Intensity of cutting Proportion of crown class removed (high or low thinning) Many combinations of frequency and intensity will keep your stands well stocked. Do remember that intensity and frequency must balance each other--if intensity is high, keep frequency low. High thinning tends to produce greater income in early logging entries than does low thinning. Low thinning tends to produce greater income in later logging entries and creates a forest with greater standing timber volume and therefore greater value. Because of these differences, high thinnings appeal to landowners who need a larger cash flow in the present decade than in the decades to come. Low thinnings appeal to landowners who want to defer income into future decades. Guidelines for precommercial thinning of Douglas-fir By: Donald L. Reukema http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr030.pdf Response of birds to thinning http://fresc.usgs.gov/products/fs/fs-033-03.pdf Silviculture/Ecology of thinning http://www.fsl.orst.edu/cfer/product.../Tappeiner.pdf Quote Link to comment Share on other sites More sharing options...
blacktailslayer Posted December 9, 2009 Author Report Share Posted December 9, 2009 (edited) A Stewardship Handbook for Family Forest Ownerships: http://www.cof.orst.edu/cof/extended...hphandbook.pdf Forest Stewardship Principles: http://www.cof.orst.edu/cof/extended..._suppFINAL.pdf Willamette Basin Explorer http://willametteexplorer.info/index.aspx University of Missouri Extension http://extension.missouri.edu/index.aspx Click on “Natural Resources”. Oregon Conservation Strategy http://www.dfw.state.or.us/conservat...y/contents.asp (Key chapters and pages on CD are listed below) Ch.2 pg.53 One example of web-based technical assistance is the Missouri Conservation Assistance Guide (http://outreach.missouri.edu/mowin/c...ide2/guide.htm). The Mis*souri Extension Service has developed an interactive web*site that allows landowners to easily explore the range of federal and state assistance programs available for different types of conservation projects. Landowners can learn what programs might be most useful to them by se*lecting options on what resources they want to conserve, specific management practices, or types of assistance. Pg. 65 What is Adaptive Management? Because natural systems and conservation issues are inherently complex, natural resource managers must continuously learn from their experi*ences as they restore habitats or implement other conservation actions. They must then adapt their approaches to respond to new information or to changing conditions. This process is called “adaptive manage*ment.” In adaptive management, resource managers assess results of actions and modify their future actions, viewing each action as an experiment. However, adaptive management is not just trial-and-error. It is a thoughtful and rational process in which assumptions are tested so resource managers can determine not only what actions work, but why. An example framework: Assess existing condition. Develop concepts about what factors are creating the current conditions. Determine desired conditions. Determine what actions could be implemented to address factors contributing to current conditions. 1. 2. Take planned action. Detect change over time and compare to desired conditions. Analyze and evaluate monitoring results. Refine con*cepts about what factors are creating the current conditions and how conservation actions should be modified (if at all). Modify conservation actions accordingly. Repeat process over time. Ideally, the lessons learned through adaptive management are shared extensively so conservation actions can become more effective and cost-efficient over larger areas. By sharing results researchers and resource managers can view results in a broader context of space and time.3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Example of a conservation strategy from another state (Missouri): Like all states, Missouri has prepared a comprehensive wildlife conserva*tion strategy and offers one model for monitoring. Missouri Depart*ment of Conservation’s approach to effectiveness monitoring will link targets (species, natural communities, restored habitats, and abiotic factors) to proposed conservation actions. Missouri will focus conserva*tion actions and monitoring in priority landscapes called Conservation Opportunity Areas (COA’s). COA Advocacy Groups (local partners and stakeholders) will define desired future conditions and needed actions. An Expert Review Panel will evaluate wildlife lists for the primary habitat types and develop a list of “monitorable” targets. This recommendation will be forwarded to the COA Advocacy Group members, and they will decide what to monitor. Effectiveness monitoring will build on the pres*ent monitoring activities by all conservation partners active in the COA, not just the Missouri Department of Conservation. Missouri believes that the best approach to evaluating the health of landscapes and natural communities is to monitor priority environmen*tal parameters or multi-taxa groups of animals and plants, rather than monitoring individual priority species. Good choices for monitoring targets are species that are representative of the habitats, communities that characterize the target landscape, and abiotic factors like water quality measures that provide clues to environmental health. The best choices for monitoring targets are species and communities (or related elements of the community) that respond to habitat change, are detect*able and to the degree possible, demonstrate public interest and support. “Willamette Valley Ecoregion” Conservation issues and actions: Habitat, invasive species, strategy species Ch.3 pg. 124-145 Habitat: Conservation summaries for strategy habitats. Ch.4 pg.1-2, 9-37, 42-56 Species: Conservation summaries for strategy species. Ch5. ALL Sources of Forest Stewardship Information Two key documents can provide valuable information as you begin to develop your stewardship plan using the NASF handbook: 1) Oregon Board of Forestry’s 2003 “Forestry Program for Oregon” which is based on the same set of seven stewardship principles, provides a thorough discussion of the reasons that each of the principles is important to consider for the sustainable management of Oregon’s forests, and has specific details about the status of Oregon forest land; and 2) Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife’s 2006 “The Oregon Conservation Strategy,” a comprehensive source of information about Oregon fish and wildlife and their habitats which provides an overview of special ecosystem concerns in each major region of the state and information about special plants and animals in each area. NASF Stewardship Principles Principle 1 Help conserve the variety of plants, animals, and trees in your forest and the surrounding landscape Principle 2 Maintain and improve productivity of your forest, both trees and nonwood products Principle 3 Maintain and improve the health and vigor of your forest and local watershed Principle 4 Protect soil fertility and water quality Principle 5 Manage your forest to help store carbon in soils, live trees, standing and fallen dead trees Principle 6 Manage your forest to help contribute to your community’s economy and quality of life Principle 7 Comply with applicable regulations and develop good management practices to serve the common good of your community Oregon Department of Forestry - Private Forests Program http://egov.oregon.gov/ODF/privateforests/index.shtml Improving Oregon's Wildlife & Fish Habitat http://egov.oregon.gov/ODF/privatefo...Wildlife.shtml Oregon Woodlands Assistance Catalog http://www.oregonwoodlands.org/ Forestland and Timber Harvest Taxes http://www.oregon.gov/DOR/TIMBER/index.shtml Oregon Small Woodlands Association http://www.oswa.org/ Edited December 9, 2009 by blacktailslayer Quote Link to comment Share on other sites More sharing options...
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